Chapter 1 The Milky Way
Section 1.1 Where are we in this Universe?
From a Philosophical Question
To a Scientific Inquiry
Section 1.2 Establishing the Milky Way
Recognizing Star Clusters in the Milky Way
Distribution of Globular Clusters
Metallicity and Population of Stars
Multi-Wavelength View of the Milky Way
Mass Contents of the Milky Way
Stellar Component
Gas Component
Dust Component
Spectral Energy Distribution of Galaxies like the Milky Way
Section 1.3 Structure of the Milky Way
The Galactic Disk
The Galactic Bulge
The Galactic Halo
Section 1.4 Kinematics of the Milky Way
Stellar Kinematics around the Galactic Center
Stellar Kinematics in the Milky Way
Disk
Bulge
Halo
Gas Kinematics in the Milky Way
Galactic Rotation Curve
Dynamical Distance
The Rise of Dark Matter
Section 1.5 Spiral Arms
Observational Characteristics
How Many Spiral Arms Does the Milky Way Have?
Theories for Spiral Arms
Section 1.6 The Surroundings
Interactions with the Surroundings
Galactic Fountains and Extragalactic Inflows
Interactions with Satellite Galaxies
Section 1.7 Milky Way Formation
Overall Characteristics of the Milky Way
The Halo: The First Component to Form
The Bulge: A Dense Central Region Formed by Gravitational Contraction
The Disk: A Long-Lived, Rotating Structure
Section 1.8 Chapter Summary
Glossary of Important Terms
Chapter 2 The Universe of Galaxies
Section 2.1 From the Milky Way to Galaxies: The Great Debate and Island Universes
The Milky Way as the Universe
The Great Debate of 1920
Galaxies Beyond the Milky Way
Distances, Redshifts, and Hubble’s Law
Galaxies as Probes of the Universe
Section 2.2 Galaxy Morphology and Physical Diversity
Spiral Galaxies
Barred Spiral Galaxies
Elliptical Galaxies
Lenticular Galaxies
Irregular and Peculiar Galaxies
Physical Diversity Behind Morphology
The Hubble Tuning Fork Diagram
Section 2.3 Galaxy Formation and Evolution
Observational Clues Beyond Morphology
Morphology–Density Relation
Stellar Populations of Galaxies
Stellar Populations and Formation Histories
Divergent Star Formation Histories
Environmental Effects and Galaxy Evolution
Interactions, Mergers, and Morphological Transformation
Section 2.4 Measuring Galaxy Properties: Light, Motion, and Dark Matter
Galaxies as Extended Objects
Surface Brightness and Radial Profiles
Total Luminosity and the Mass That Emits Light
Galaxy Rotation and Doppler Measurements
Rotation Curves and the Evidence for Dark Matter
Dark Matter as a Universal Component of Galaxies
Mass Estimates without Rotation: Elliptical Galaxies and Velocity Dispersion
Section 2.5 Unified Theory of Active Galactic Nuclei
The Search for Extremely Luminous Galaxies
Observational Anomalies in Active Galaxies
Seyfert Galaxies
Doppler Broadening in Type 1 Seyfert Galaxies
Quasi-Stellar Objects, or Quasars
Compactness and Variability Constraints
Enhanced Variability in Blazars
Radio Emission, Jets, and Energetic Outflows
X-ray, UV, and Far-IR Excess from AGNi
The Central Engine: Mass and Energy Requirements
Building a Unified Picture of Active Galactic Nuclei
Section 2.6 Chapter Summary
Glossary of Important Terms
Chapter 3 Cosmology: Comprehending the Universe
Astrophysics for the Rest of Us: Physics of Galaxies
What does it really mean to “observe” the Universe? This course trains you to think like an observational astronomer, moving from intuition to first-principles reasoning about light from stars and galaxies. You’ll follow real observational clues, turn data into explanations, and build a coherent picture of galactic physics and cosmology.
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Astrophysics is not just pretty pictures. What happens when we go beyond awe and start asking why the universe must behave the way it does?
Astrophysics for the Rest of Us: Physics of Galaxies invites you to explore the cosmos from first principles — not as a list of disconnected facts, but as a logical unfolding of what must happen, given the laws of physics and the information we can actually observe.
We begin with a deceptively simple question: where are we? From the distribution of stars around the Sun, to the realization that we live inside the Milky Way, and onward to how galaxies themselves are distributed in the universe, you will learn how astronomers extract meaning from distant messengers and limited viewpoints.
This course doesn’t assume you are a physicist. What it assumes is that you’re curious, thoughtful, and willing to slow down and think things through. We emphasize conceptual understanding, plain language, and building your own reasoning from the ground up. You’ll walk in the shoes of astronomers, wrestle with real cosmic puzzles, and come away with a deep, working intuition for how astrophysics actually works.
Whether you’re preparing for more advanced coursework, teaching others, or simply hungry to understand the universe for yourself, this is your starting point.
Note: This material is intended as a required resource for a college course.
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