1The following books show that Rome (in reaction to Sicarii attacks) made private sword ownership illegal: Martin Goodman and Jane Sherwood, The Roman World, 44 BC-AD 180 (London: Routledge, 1997); Thomas Grünewald, Bandits in the Roman Empire: Myth and Reality, trans. by John Drinkwater (London: Routledge, 2004); Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 184; E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: A Study in Political Relations (Boston: Brill, 2001), 241.↩

2For resources on spiritual warfare and the demonic influence of Roman rulers, see my Revelation Series at BiblicalBlueprints.com, SermonAudio.com, or find The Revelation Project podcast on your favorite podcast app.↩

3James M. Willson, Civil Government: An Exposition of Romans XIII. 1-7 (Philadelphia: William S. Young, 1853), 19. Willson’s extended treatment of Romans 13 is masterful, and I highly recommend that it be read and digested. These brief quotes do not do justice to his summarization of the historic Reformed position. ↩

4David Abernathy, An Exegetical Summary of Romans 9–16 (Dallas, TX: SIL International, 2009), 236.↩

5William Arndt et al., A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 991.↩

6Willson, 25.↩

7Willson, 29. ↩

8Willson, 31.↩

9John R. W. Stott, The Message of Romans: God’s Good News for the World, The Bible Speaks Today (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001), 341. Here is another commentary that takes a similar view on the nature of the magistrate in Romans 13: Ben Witherington III and Darlene Hyatt, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 307–308.↩

10For further research, the following are a sampling of commentaries that seek to demonstrate why “the one who delivered Me to you” is a reference to Caiaphas: Andreas J. Kostenberger, John (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2004); D. A. Carson, The Gospel according to John, The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Leicester, England; Grand Rapids, MI: Inter-Varsity Press; W.B. Eerdmans, 1991); Comfort, Phillip W. and Wendall C. Hawley. Opening the Gospel of John (Wheaton: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 1994); Marcus Dods, The Gospel of St. John (New York: George H. Doran Company, n.d.); R. C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. John’s Gospel (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961); Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Gospel of John, Testament (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1875), 339–340; etc.↩

11For further contextual reasons why this interpretation makes the most sense, see Rodney A. Whitacre, John, vol. 4, The IVP New Testament Commentary Series (Westmont, IL: IVP Academic, 1999), 435, 450-453.↩

12There are some restrictions on the use of the death penalty — for instance, in relation to victim’s rights — which I explore further in my booklet Is the Death Penalty Just? You can find that booklet on BiblicalBlueprints.com or by scanning the QR code at the back of this book.↩

13State powers were also to be checked by separation of powers between geographic jurisdictions (tribes had power to choose or not choose a king, 2 Sam. 2:4-11; 5:1-5, or to war against another tribe, Judges 20) and between legislative, executive, and judicial branches (Isa. 33:22; Jer. 22:3; Deut. 1:17); and by the possibility of interposition (Joshua 2:1-16; 2 Sam. 24:3; 1 Kings 12:16-24; 18:3-4; 2 Chron. 21:10; 26:20; etc.) or jury nullification where “the people” could deliver an accused person from a magistrate (“the avenger of blood”) through their own deliberation (Numb. 35:25).↩

14God’s requirements in Deuteronomy 17 also imposed limits on who can rule. While 2 Samuel 23:1-7 and Psalm 2 give character requirements for God-honoring rulers, Deuteronomy 17:15 clarified that the highest office in the land must be occupied by citizens, not foreigners (v. 15). This would limit rulers to those known in character by the people, and with undivided loyalties.↩

15For the best explanation I’ve found on Biblical taxes, see Dr. Robert Fugate’s book Toward a Theology of Taxation (Omaha: Lord of the Nations LLC, 2016).↩

16My Revelation Series is available on BiblicalBlueprints.com, SermonAudio.com, or on your favorite podcast app as “The Revelation Project”.↩

17Louis DeBoer, “The Fundamental Tactic for Resisting Tyranny,” in Gary North, ed., Tactics of Christian Resistance: A Symposium Edited by Gary North (Tyler, TX: Geneva Divinity School Press, 1983), 13.↩

18Rev. 1:5b-6; 4:8, 11; 5:9-10, 12, 13b, 14; 6:10; 7:10, 12; 11:15, 17-18; 12:10-12; 14:3; 15:3-4; 16:5-6, 7b; 18:2-3, 4-7, 10, 16-17a, 19, 20, 21-24; 19:1b-3, 4, 5, 6b-8.↩

19This is documented in my sermon on Revelation 6:9-11, “The Cry Of The Martyrs: Was It Answered?” available on BiblicalBlueprints.com, SermonAudio.com, or on your favorite podcast app.↩

20This is also documented in secular history by Emil Schürer, A History of the Jewish People, II, vol. 2 (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), 257ff.; Simeon L. Guterman, Religious Toleration and Persecution in Ancient Rome (London: Aiglon Press, 1951); Charles Merivale, A History of the Romans Under the Empire (London: Spottiswoode and Co., 1865), 423.↩

21To hear these messages on Psalm 5, scan the QR code at the back of this book or listen to the Foundations Series on BiblicalBlueprints.com.↩

22This sermon series, “The Life of David,” can be found on BiblicalBlueprints.com, SermonAudio.com, or on your favorite podcast app.↩

23R.C.H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. Matthew’s Gospel (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1961), 1051–1052.↩

24This sermon, “Confrontation of the Python Spirit,” can be found in my Acts Series on BiblicalBlueprints.com, SermonAudio.com, or on your favorite podcast app.↩